Footnotes

• Contributors SL conceived the study, performed the experiments and data analysis, and drafted the manuscript. JZ performed the experiments, supervised the study and revised the manuscript. TZ and KY performed the experiments and provided intellectual contribution and critical comments on the manuscript. LCC performed the experiments. WYZ performed probiotics isolation and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) analysis. FKLC, PKSC and WKKW provided intellectual contribution and critical comments on the manuscript. SCN supervised the study and revised the manuscript.

• Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

• Competing interests FKLC and SCN are co-founders and in the board of GenieBiome Ltd. JZ, FKLC, and SCN are inventors of a patent application (US provisional patent application no. 63/281,887) in connection with this work. WT is employee of GenieBiome Ltd. All other authors declare that there are no competing interests.

• Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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