Controls, n (%) or Mean±SD n=269 | COVID-19, n (%) or Mean±SD n=614 | P value | |
Age | 50.9±18.1 | 49.9±16.1 | 0.471 |
Sex, male | 164 (62.1) | 364 (59.9) | 0.532 |
BMI | 26.8±5.5 | 27.7±5.3 | 0.023 |
Smoker | <0.001 | ||
No | 125 (47.5) | 436 (71.8) | |
Current | 72 (27.4) | 60 (9.9) | |
Former | 66 (25.1) | 111 (18.3) | |
Alcohol consumption | 58 (22.3) | 95 (15.7) | 0.018 |
Physical activity (at least 30 min 3 times/week) | 78 (30) | 174 (29.9) | 0.976 |
Comorbidities | |||
Neurological | 21 (7.8) | 16 (2.6) | <0.001 |
Cardiovascular | 105 (39) | 173 (28.2) | 0.001 |
Respiratory | 31 (11.5) | 40 (6.5) | 0.012 |
Liver | 16 (6) | 19 (3.1) | 0.045 |
Kidney | 20 (7.4) | 28 (4.6) | 0.083 |
Diabetes | 60 (22.3) | 89 (14.5) | 0.004 |
Metabolic other than diabetes | 32 (11.9) | 58 (9.5) | 0.268 |
Musculoskeletal | 8 (3) | 16 (2.6) | 0.757 |
Psychiatric | 9 (3.4) | 6 (1) | 0.012 |
Gynaecological | 3 (1.1) | 1 (0.2) | 0.052 |
Urological | 20 (7.4) | 21 (3.4) | 0.009 |
Rheumatological | 7 (2.6) | 14 (2.3) | 0.772 |
Allergies | 13 (4.8) | 18 (2.9) | 0.158 |
Autoimmune | 11 (4.1) | 17 (2.8) | 0.303 |
Neoplastic | 11 (4.1) | 13 (2.1) | 0.097 |
Psychological | 11 (4.1) | 8 (1.3) | 0.009 |
Haematological | 10 (3.7) | 7 (1.1) | 0.010 |
Chronic medication intake with GI effect | |||
Proton pump inhibitors | 68 (25.3) | 74 (12.1) | <0.001 |
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs | 33 (12.3) | 33 (5.4) | <0.001 |
Steroids | 13 (4.8) | 7 (1.1) | 0.001 |
Metformin | 16 (6) | 31 (5.1) | 0.584 |
Serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors | 9 (3.4) | 11 (1.8) | 0.153 |
Antipsychotic | 4 (1.5) | 3 (0.5) | 0.125 |
Iron | 5 (1.9) | 5 (0.8) | 0.177 |
Fibrates | 1 (0.4) | 7 (1.1) | 0.267 |
ACE-I | 32 (11.9) | 56 (9.1) | 0.205 |
Beta-blockers | 45 (16.7) | 76 (12.4) | 0.084 |
Angiotensin-2 antagonist | 20 (7.4) | 56 (9.1) | 0.411 |
Lithium | 0 | 0 | – |
Carbamazepine | 3 (1.1) | 1 (0.2) | 0.052 |
Furosemide | 25 (9.3) | 10 (1.6) | <0.001 |
5-ASA | 3 (1.1) | 5 (0.8) | 0.664 |
Rifaximin | 3 (1.1) | 0 | 0.009 |
Opiates | 4 (1.5) | 2 (0.3) | 0.053 |
Anticholinergics | 1 (0.4) | 1 (0.2) | 0.594 |
Verapamil | 3 (1.1) | 3 (0.5) | 0.297 |
Levothyroxine | 11 (4.1) | 19 (3.1) | 0.453 |
Cholestyramine | 1 (0.4) | 0 | 0.131 |
Monoclonal antibodies | 1 (0.4) | 0 | 0.131 |
Digoxin | 0 | 1 (0.2) | 0.508 |
Dopaminergic agents | 1 (0.4) | 2 (0.3) | 0.914 |
H2 blockers | 3 (1.1) | 1 (0.2) | 0.052 |
Benzodiazepines | 13 (4.8) | 11 (1.8) | 0.011 |
Tricyclic antidepressant | 3 (1.1) | 2 (0.3) | 0.150 |
Antibiotics in the last 3 months | 91 (34.5) | 132 (21.5) | <0.001 |
Probiotics in the last 3 months | 28 (10.7) | 46 (7.5) | 0.125 |
ACE-I, ACE inhibitor; 5-ASA, acid 5 amino-salicylic; BMI, body mass index; GI, gastrointestinal; n, number; SD, Standard deviation.