Abstract
COVID-19 is caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 that has an affinity for neural tissue. There are reports of encephalitis, encephalopathy, cranial neuropathy, Guillain-Barrè syndrome, and myositis/rhabdomyolysis in patients with COVID-19. In this review, we focused on the neuromuscular manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection. We analyzed all published reports on SARS-CoV-2-related peripheral nerve, neuromuscular junction, muscle, and cranial nerve disorders. Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction is now accepted as an early manifestation of COVID-19 infection. Inflammation, edema, and axonal damage of olfactory bulb have been shown in autopsy of patients who died of COVID-19. Olfactory pathway is suggested as a portal of entry of SARS-CoV-2 in the brain. Similar to involvement of olfactory bulb, isolated oculomotor, trochlear and facial nerve has been described. Increasing reports Guillain-Barrè syndrome secondary to COVID-19 are being published. Unlike typical GBS, most of COVID-19-related GBS were elderly, had concomitant pneumonia or ARDS, more prevalent demyelinating neuropathy, and relatively poor outcome. Myalgia is described among the common symptoms of COVID-19 after fever, cough, and sore throat. Duration of myalgia may be related to the severity of COVID-19 disease. Few patients had muscle weakness and elevated creatine kinase along with elevated levels of acute-phase reactants. All these patients with myositis/rhabdomyolysis had severe respiratory complications related to COVID-19. A handful of patients with myasthenia gravis showed exacerbation of their disease after acquiring COVID-19 disease. Most of these patients recovered with either intravenous immunoglobulins or steroids.
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The COVID-19 pandemic is caused by SARS-CoV-2, a member of the Coronavirinae subfamily. The coronaviruses are classified in four genera: alpha, beta, gamma, and delta coronaviruses [1]. The world has seen three large pandemics in the last 2 decades. The first pandemic originated in Guangdong, China (2002–2003) caused by SARS-CoV-1, and the second pandemic originated in Saudi Arabia (2012), caused by MERS CoV [2,3,4]. Both pandemics produced severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in thousands of people and produced case fatality rate of 9.6% and 34.4%, respectively [5]. The current pandemic is caused by novel coronavirus named as SARS-CoV-2 that originated in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. As of July 2020, COVID-19 has affected 14.3 million people and produced more than six hundred thousand deaths. All three viruses that produced these three pandemics are beta coronaviruses and share a homologous genomic sequence. The SARS-CoV-2 has a higher affinity for angiotensin-converting enzyme receptor 2 (ACE-2) that is expressed on endothelial cells and neurons. This explains a higher neuro-invasive capacity of SARS-CoV-2 as compared with previous coronaviruses [6].
A number of neurological manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 have been reported. These include encephalitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), encephalopathy, steroid-responsive encephalopathy, posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome (PRES), and meningitis. The neuromuscular manifestations like hyposmia/ageusia, ophthalmoparesis, facial paresis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, symmetrical neuropathy, critical-illness myopathy and neuropathy, myalgia, myositis, and rhabdomyolysis have also been described in patients secondary to COVID-19. In this review, we focused on the neuromuscular manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
Methods
We analyzed all published reports on COVID-19-associated neuromuscular manifestations. We performed an extensive search of PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and preprint databases (medRxiv and bioRxiv). We identified isolated case reports, case series, and cohort studies. We used search terms, “COVID-19 and Guillain-Barré syndrome, hyposmia, myositis, rhabdomyolysis, neuropathy” and “SARS-CoV-2 and Guillain-Barré syndrome, hyposmia, myositis, rhabdomyolysis, neuropathy”. Full-text articles were acquired from journals’ websites. We analyzed demographic, clinical, CSF, and neuroimaging characteristics of patients presenting with COVID-19-related peripheral nervous system manifestations. We also discuss the pathogenesis of COVID-19-associated neuropathy and muscle involvement. The last search was done on 2 July 2020.
Search results
We identified 96 studies of COVID-19-related myalgia. After exclusion of descriptive reviews, data in other than English language, and duplicate studies, we selected 13 studies and 2 meta-analysis comprising of 10 and 55 studies, respectively (Table 1) [7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21].
Similarly, we identified 8 case reports (9 patients) with keywords COVID-19 and myositis/rhabdomyolysis (Table 2) [22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29].
Two reports described exacerbation of myasthenia gravis in six patients secondary to COVID-19 infection [30, 31].
We identified 34 reports comprising 39 patients with Guillain-Barrè syndrome and five patients with Miller-Fisher syndrome (Tables 3 and 4) [32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65].
In addition to GBS and MFS, we also included three reports of six patients who developed symmetrical or asymmetrical neuropathy (Table 5) [66,67,68].
We identified 2 meta-analyses of 24 and 21 studies/case reports respectively that described patients with olfactory/gustatory dysfunction [69, 70]. In addition, we describe 11 studies that evaluated olfactory/gustatory dysfunction in COVID-19 patients (Table 6) [71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81].
We also included 5 reports (6 patients) of isolated cranial neuropathy in COVID-19 patients (Table 6) [82,83,84,85,86,87].
Myalgia
A meta-analysis of clinical characteristics by Long-quan Li et al. (10 studies, 1995 patients, published between December 2019 and February 2020) showed that prevalence of myalgia was 35.8% (range 11 to 50%). Frequency of other symptoms was fever (88.5%), cough (68.6%), expectoration (28.2%) and dyspnoea (21.9%). Less common symptoms were dizziness, diarrhoea, nausea, and vomiting. They found a fatality rate of 5% and discharge rate of 52% in COVID-19 patients [10]. Another meta-analysis (55 studies, 8697 patients, published between 1 January 2020 and 16 March 2020) showed myalgia in 21.9% COVID-19 patients. Other common symptoms were fever (78.4%), cough (58.3%), fatigue (34%), expectoration (23.7%), anorexia (22.9%), chest tightness (22.9%), and dyspnoea (20.6%). Patients diagnosed before January 31 had higher prevalence of fever and cough. The authors concluded that as the pandemic grew, the prevalence of atypical symptoms increased [15]. In a study of olfactory and gustatory function in COVID-19 patients by Lechien et al., more than 50% patients had myalgia [76]. In a retrospective study by Zhang et al., muscle ache was one of the independent predictors for unimprovement in patients with COVID-19. The other independent predictors were being male, severe COVID-19 condition, expectoration, and decreased albumin at admission [87]. In a cohort of pregnant patients, the frequency of constitutional symptoms of COVID-19 infection was similar to the general population. The study did not find any vertical transmission of COVID-19 infection [88]. In a study comparing the clinical features of SARS-CoV-1 and COVID-19 infection, fever and cough were equally prevalent in both infections but the myalgia and diarrhoea were less common in COVID-19 as compared with SARS-CoV-1 [89]. In a study of 1420 European patients with COVID-19, elderly patients were more likely to have myalgia, fatigue, and fever as compared with younger patients who had higher propensity to acquire symptoms related to ear, nose, and throat [13]. As compared with COVID-19-negative patients, COVID-19-positive patients with respiratory illness reported longer symptom duration (median 7 vs. 3 days), higher prevalence of fever (82% vs. 44%), fatigue (85% vs. 50%), and myalgias (61% vs 27%) [90]. Myalgia persisted at the median time of 23 days of cessation of viral shedding. The other symptoms that persisted at the time of cessation of viral shedding were cough, anosmia, ageusia, and sore throat [91].
Myositis/rhabdomyolysis
Nine patients (age range 16 to 88 years, all males) with COVID-19-related myositis/rhabdomyolysis were reported [22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29]. Eight patients presented with generalized or limb weakness. Myalgias were present in four patients. One patient who did not have muscle weakness presented with myalgia, fever, and dyspnoea [26]. One patient presented with repetitive muscle twitching along with tingling and numbness in the legs [28]. Only one patient had cola-coloured urine [29]. Three patients passed red blood cells in the urine. All patients had elevated CPK levels [28, 29]. One patient who presented with cola-coloured urine had most elevated CPK level of 427,656 IU/L. All patients had elevated levels of CRP, LDH, and serum ferritin. Six patients had abnormalities on chest imaging like ground-glass opacities, pneumonia, pleural effusion, or multifocal opacities. Two patients required mechanical ventilation [22, 29]. Five patients improved with conservative management.
In addition to myositis and rhabdomyolysis, there is a report of six COVID-19 patients with critical-illness myopathy. All six patients had acute flaccid quadriparesis. Electrophysiological tests revealed a myopathic pattern. They had mildly elevated creatine kinase and all patients had a good outcome [92]. Cachexia and sarcopenia have also been described in patients affected by COVID-19 [93].
Myasthenia gravis
There are no reports of de-novo occurrence of myasthenia gravis secondary to COVID-19. However, there are two reports of 5 and 1 patients respectively (age range 42–90 years, 4 females) of COVID-19 infection-related exacerbation of the pre-existing myasthenia gravis [30, 31]. Five patients had anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody-positive myasthenia gravis whereas one patient had muscle-specific kinase (MuSK)–positive myasthenia gravis. All patients had exacerbation of myasthenic symptoms after sore throat, fever, cough, and shortness of breath in variable combination. Two patients required mechanical ventilation. Steroids were continued in 4 patients. Two patients received intravenous immunoglobulins. Two patients were taking mycophenolate mofetil that was transiently stopped in view of COVID-19 infection. MMF was resumed in both patients after discharge from the hospital. Five patients improved, and one patient was on mechanical ventilator at the time of publication of the report.
Guillain-Barrè syndrome and Miller-Fisher syndrome
Recently, 39 patients with GBS and 5 patients with MFS secondary to COVID-19 were published. Most of the reports were from China, Italy, and the USA. The demographic profile, frequency of clinical features, electrophysiological features, and good outcome are described in Table 3. GBS and MFS were more frequent in elderly people. Time to onset of GBS/MFS ranged from 3 days to 4 weeks of onset of COVID-19 symptoms. Majority of patients had para-infectious and minority had post-infectious GBS/MFS. Upper respiratory tract symptoms were the usual preceding symptoms. Hyposmia and ageusia were distinctive features seen in COVID-19 patients unlike the typical GBS where these olfactory symptoms are not seen. Most patients had ascending or lower limb areflexic weakness that later on progressed and involved bifacial weakness and other cranial neuropathies. Unlike typical GBS, respiratory failure secondary to lung involvement was common in GBS patients secondary to COVID-19. Majority of patients had severe demyelinating type of neuropathy. CSF-albumin-cytological dissociation was frequently noticed. SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR was not detected in the CSF of the patients subjected to the test. Most patients with lung pathologies required mechanical ventilation and had a poor outcome in the form of either prolonged ventilatory stay, residual weakness, or death.
Five patients with MFS (age range 36–74 years, 3 males) presented with preceding upper respiratory symptoms (2 patients) and diarrhoea (1 patient). All three patients had gait difficulty, ataxia, and areflexia. One patient had visual blurring and 2 patients had ophthalmoparesis. Two patients had preceding ageusia/hyposmia. Four patients received intravenous immunoglobulin. All five patients improved.
Neuropathy
Three reports of 6 patients with COVID-19-related neuropathy were published [66,67,68]. Authors claimed that the neuropathy in their patients was different from GBS. Ghiasvand et al. reported a 68-year-old female with symmetrical lower motor neuron quadriparesis after an initial upper respiratory involvement. Due to respiratory involvement, patient died and electrophysiological tests could not be performed [66]. Abdelnour et al. reported a 69-year-old male with lower limb areflexic weakness and gait ataxia without any COVID-19-related preceding symptoms. His RT-PCR from a nasopharyngeal swab was positive for SARS-CoV-2. Electrophysiology tests were not performed. The patient improved spontaneously. In absence of nerve conduction tests, type of neuropathy could not be determined in both cases [67]. Chaumont et al. presented four patients (age range 52 to 72 years, all males), who presented with CNS symptoms along with quadriparesis after or during the weaning stage from the mechanical ventilator [68]. All patients had ARDS secondary to COVID-19 infection, and they developed neurological features after an interval of 12 to 20 days of initial COVID-19 symptoms. All patients had comorbid illnesses like diabetes mellitus in three, hypertension in two, urothelial cancer in one, and obstructive sleep apnoea in one patient. Three patients had evidence of demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy whereas one patient had denervation in limbs suggestive of axonal neuropathy. One patient had asymmetrical neuropathy whereas the rest of the patients had symmetrical neuropathy. All patients had dysautonomia and action myoclonus, a feature not seen in critical-illness neuropathy.
Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction
Olfactory and gustatory dysfunction is accepted as an early symptom of COVID-19 infection. In a review of 24 studies by Mehraeen et al., anosmia, hyposmia, ageusia, and dysgeusia was a presenting feature in majority of the studies [69]. They found anosmia to be the most common olfactory/gustatory symptom. They concluded that SARS-CoV-2 may infect neural and oral tissue and thereby present with olfactory and gustatory symptoms. Another review by Kang et al. (21 studies) had similar observations [70]. They found that the use of intranasal or oral steroids enhanced the recovery of COVID-19-related olfactory/gustatory dysfunction [70]. We found 11 studies that specifically evaluated gustatory and olfactory functions in patients with COVID-19 infection [71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81]. Majority of patients had olfactory/gustatory dysfunction in addition to other symptoms like fever, cough, sore throat, and headache. The presence of olfactory/gustatory symptoms were not related to the severity of disease but related to the duration chemosensitive symptoms [78]. More patients were found to have chemosensitive dysfunction when examined with standard tests as compared with those who self-reported symptoms. By second week, 30 to 50% patients reported regression of olfactory and gustatory symptoms [78].
In an autopsy study of two patients that died of COVID-19 infection (one had anosmia as early feature), authors found inflammation and axonal damage in the olfactory bulb explaining the olfactory symptoms [94]. In both cases, olfactory striae were normal. Other finding was perivascular leukocyte infiltration in the basal ganglia. The olfactory bulb edema has also been demonstrated on cranial MRI of patients with COVID-19 infection [95]. His anosmia and dysgeusia improved by 14 days and olfactory bulb edema also subsided on repeat MRI at 24 days of illness. In a study of 18 COVID-19 patients who underwent Butanol threshold test and smell identification tests, the biopsies of the nasal mucosa revealed CD68 macrophages harbouring SARS-CoV-2 antigen in their stroma [96].
Cranial neuropathy
Various cranial neuropathies are described in patients with COVID-19 infection in relation to encephalopathy/encephalitis or GBS. However, isolated cranial neuropathies have also been described. Dinkin et al. described a 36-year-old male with constitutional symptoms, diplopia secondary to left 3rd, and bilateral 6th nerve palsy [82]. MRI showed hyperintensity on T2-weighted sequence and gadolinium enhancement of left 3rd cranial nerve. He showed partial improvement on intravenous immunoglobulin. Another 71-year-old female presented with painless right 6th cranial nerve palsy. She had gadolinium enhancement of optic nerve sheath. She showed spontaneous improvement in diplopia. Oliveira RMC et al. reported a 69-year-old male with stabbing occipital pain and diplopia secondary to trochlear nerve palsy [83]. He had evidence of vertebrobasilar vasculitis that showed improvement on intravenous methylprednisolone. Another patient reported by Wan et al. had left facial palsy along with pain in left mastoid region. He improved with anti-viral drugs [84]. Glossopharyngeal, vagus, and trigeminal neuropathy (with Herpes Zoster co-infection) have also been described in patients with COVID-19 [85, 86]. All these patients with cranial neuropathies showed lung involvement secondary to COVID-19 infection.
Patho-mechanism of nervous tissue involvement
Neuronal affinity and propagation
ACE 2 is widely expressed on nervous tissue cells like neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. Substantia nigra, ventricles, middle temporal gyrus, posterior cingulate cortex, and olfactory bulb express ACE-2 receptor in high concentrations. In addition, respiratory epithelium, lung parenchyma, vascular endothelium, kidney cells, and intestinal epithelium also express ACE-2 [97, 98]. Virus may gain entry to nervous tissue from vascular endothelial cells. Once inside the nerve cell, SARS-CoV-2 can alter the cellular transport function to facilitate its transmission from one neuron to another [99, 100].
Since SARS-CoV-2 is a respiratory virus, the virus particles have been shown in the CD 68 macrophages in the biopsy of nasal tissues from patients presenting with COVID-19-related olfactory dysfunction [96]. Patients with olfactory dysfunction may have inflammation and edema of olfactory bulb [94, 95]. In animal studies, it has been shown that coronavirus may utilize olfactory pathway to gain entry into central nervous system [101]. Neuronal changes have been detected in hypothalamus and cortex of SARS-CoV victims [102]. Retrograde transmission of the virus from peripheral nerve terminals through nerve synapses with the help of neural proteins dynein and kinesin have also been postulated [98]. SARS-CoV-2 RNA has also been demonstrated in the CSF [98].
Mechanisms of involvement of peripheral nerves
The mechanism of involvement of peripheral nervous system is not fully understood. It is mostly thought to be immune-mediated. In patients with rapid evolution of GBS after the onset of COVID-19 symptoms, direct cytotoxic effects of virus on peripheral nerves is a postulated mechanism. Guillain-Barrè syndrome (GBS) is usually considered an immune-mediated disease of peripheral nerve myelin sheath or Schwann cells. The glycoproteins on the surface of the virus resemble with glycoconjugates in human nervous tissue [55]. The antibodies formed against the viral surface glycoproteins acts against the glycoconjugates on the neural tissue. This mechanism of nerve injury is famously known as “molecular mimicry”. SARS-CoV-2 shares two hexapeptides with human shock proteins 90 and 60. Both these proteins have immunogenic potentials, and they are among the 41 human proteins associated with Guillain-Barrè syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy [103]. The other neuropathies reported in patients with COVID-19 may also be secondary to immune-mediated mechanisms.
Mechanism of muscle involvement
The mechanism of myositis in COVID-19 infection is not fully understood. Skeletal muscles and other cells in the muscles like satellite cells, leukocytes, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells express ACE-2. Therefore, it is postulated that skeletal muscles are susceptible to direct muscle invasion by SARS-CoV-2 [104]. Animal studies suggest that children are more likely to get affected due to their immature muscle cells [25]. Other possible mechanisms suggested are immune complex deposition in muscles, release of myotoxic cytokines, damage due to homology between viral antigens and human muscle cells, and adsorption of viral protein on muscle membranes leading to expression of viral antigens on myocyte surface. Whether these postulated mechanisms for COVID-19-related myositis are also responsible for myalgia is also not known.
Conclusion
SARS-CoV-2 has a special affinity for the neural tissue. Olfactory and gustatory symptoms are accepted as an early manifestation of COVID-19 infection. Olfactory bulb inflammation and edema with axonal damage in patients with COVID-19 suggest an olfactory route entry of virus to involve the brain and other cranial nerves. The SARS-CoV-2 also involves peripheral nervous system. Myalgia is one of the common early symptoms of the disease. Guillain-Barrè syndrome and Miller-Fisher syndrome are increasingly being described in patients with preceding or concomitant COVID-19 disease. This points towards the involvement of peripheral nerves either by direct infection of nerves or by the mechanism of “molecular mimicry”. There are also reports of myositis and rhabdomyositis secondary to COVID-19 disease. Since muscle also expresses ACE-2 receptors, direct muscle involvement by SARS-CoV-2 is postulated in addition to immune-mediated muscle damage.
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Paliwal, V.K., Garg, R.K., Gupta, A. et al. Neuromuscular presentations in patients with COVID-19. Neurol Sci 41, 3039–3056 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-020-04708-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-020-04708-8