Neuroticism, alexithymia, negative affect, and positive affect as determinants of medically unexplained symptoms
Introduction
The experience of physical symptoms that cannot be (adequately) explained by organic findings, is a common phenomenon in the general population (Kroenke & Price, 1993) and in all medical settings (Escobar, Waitzkin, Cohen Silver, Gara, & Holman, 1998; Fink, 1992). In their chronic or recurrent form, they lead to an increased utilization of health care resources, increased disability, and an elevated number of days off work (Fink, Sörensen, Engberg, Holm, & Munk-Jorgensen, 1999; Kroenke et al., 1997; Smith, 1994). This clinical phenomenon has attracted a number of names, including the term somatization, which is widely used by psychiatrists and psychologists. Although a broad definition of somatization is synonymous to the presentation of physical symptoms that cannot be (adequately) explained by organic findings (Kellner, 1990), the term somatization has been variously defined (De Gucht & Fischler, 2002), and often entails assumptions regarding etiology (Bridges & Goldberg, 1985). In order to avoid this problem and allow the etiology of such symptoms to be investigated independently, Mayou (1993) proposed the use of a more general, theoretically neutral, term, such as non-organic physical symptoms or medically unexplained symptoms (MUS). For the purpose of this study, the term MUS was preferred.
A large number of factors have been studied in order to account for the phenomenon of MUS, including a number of personality traits, considered to be risk factors for its development and/or persistence. One of them is neuroticism, defined as “a broad dimension of individual differences in the tendency to experience negative distressing emotions” (Costa & McCrae, 1987, p. 301). Neuroticism has repeatedly been demonstrated to be related to the presentation of MUS (Costa, 1987; Costa & McCrae, 1987; Russo et al., 1997; Vassend, 1994). Another trait dimension that has been hypothesized to play a role in the development of MUS, is alexithymia (Sifneos, 1973). This dimension, which literally means `no words for feelings', is considered to reflect a deficit in the cognitive processing and regulation of emotions (Bagby & Taylor, 1997). Although the results of empirical research have demonstrated the existence of an association between alexithymia and MUS (Taylor, 1997), both the magnitude and specificity of this association remains to be established (De Gucht & Heiser, 2003; Kooiman, 1998; Lundh & Simonsson-Sarnecki, 2001). In addition, the constituting dimensions of alexithymia relate differently to MUS, suggesting that these dimensions have greater discriminant validity than general alexithymia (De Gucht & Heiser, 2003; Kooiman, 1998).
Next to personality factors, the experience of psychological distress, especially anxiety and depression, has been considered to be an important factor in the development of MUS. This has led a number of authors to define somatization as a somatic equivalent of psychological distress (Bridges & Goldberg, 1985; Katon, Ries, & Kleinman, 1984; Lipowski, 1987). Empirical research has demonstrated a high degree of comorbidity between the presentation of MUS, and anxiety and depression, both on a symptom and syndrome level (Fink, 1995; Simon, Gater, Kisely, & Piccinelli, 1996; Simon & Von Korff, 1991). Although, from a theoretical perspective, anxiety and depression are closely related to positive as well as negative affect (Clark & Watson, 1991), the dimension of positive affect, especially defined as a state variable, has not often been studied with respect to MUS (Adler, Horowitz, Garcia, & Moyer, 1998; Billings, Folkman, Acree, & Moskowitz, 2000; Brown & Moskowitz, 1997; Lundh & Simonsson-Sarnecki, 2001).
It is a well-known fact that, in addition to being related to the experience of MUS, neuroticism, alexithymia, and psychological distress are also (highly) intercorrelated (Bagby, Taylor, & Parker, 1994b; Hendryx, Haviland, & Shaw, 1991; Honkalampi, Hintikka, Tanskanen, Lehtonen, & Viinamäki, 2000; Luminet, Bagby, Wagner, Taylor, & Parker, 1999). Studies that have looked at the respective contribution of each of these factors to the experience of MUS are however scarce (Deary, Scott, & Wilson, 1997; Lundh & Simonsson-Sarnecki, 2001).
In the present study, the contribution of alexithymia to the phenomenon of MUS was studied within the context of its relationship with neuroticism, state negative affect (psychological distress), and state positive affect. The specific research questions of the study are: (1) Do the different dimensions of alexithymia relate differently to MUS? (2) Can we find evidence for the fact that neuroticism and alexithymia directly influence the experience of MUS, or should they be considered vulnerability factors that influence the experience of negative or positive affective states, which in turn leads to MUS? In other words, can we find evidence for direct and/or indirect effects of the personality traits under study on MUS? In the event of indirect effects, we hypothesize these to be mediated through the presence of negative affective states (psychological distress) and/or the absence of positive affective states; (3) Are there any interaction effects between the personality traits neuroticism and alexithymia on the one hand, and the affective state dimension on the other hand. In other words, to what extent does affective state have a moderating effect on the relation between neuroticism/alexithymia and the experience of MUS?
Section snippets
Subjects
The subject sample consisted of patients between the age of 18 and 70 presenting to their primary care physician with physical symptoms that, based on a physical examination and/or the results of additional diagnostic testing (e.g. laboratory analyses, ECG, radiological information), could not be attributed to a clear organic cause. Thirty primary care practices participated in the study. A total number of 431 patients were initially addressed. Fifty-two patients (12%) refused to participate or
Preliminary analyses and descriptive statistics
To reduce the number of variables measuring the negative and positive affect dimension, the variables anxiety, depression, negative affect, and positive affect were subjected to a principal component analysis with varimax rotation. This analysis resulted in two factors, explaining 88% of total variance. The first factor accounted for 69% of the variance and represented a negative affect factor (NA factor) consisting of three variables (loading): anxiety (0.90), depression (0.87), and negative
Discussion
The main objective of this study was to explore the interrelationships between the personality traits neuroticism and alexithymia, state negative affect (or psychological distress), state positive affect, and MUS. To this end three specific research questions were formulated.
The first of these questions relates to the potential discriminant validity of the three separate dimensions of alexithymia, with respect to reports of MUS. In univariate analysis, a differential pattern of associations
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