Special report and reviewIntegrated Upper Gastrointestinal Response to Food Intake
Section snippets
The Cephalic Phase
In this initial phase, cholinergic neural input is the dominant mediator; CCK and gastrin are additional stimulatory modulators. Gustatory and other visceral afferent inputs project into different subnuclei of the nucleus of the solitary tract. Central cholinergic circuits, neuropeptide Y (NPY), and thyrotropin-releasing hormone are candidate central stimulators of the cephalic phase, which is mediated, at least in part, through efferent vagal fibers.1 Preganglionic motor neurons from vagal
Motor Responses to Food Ingestion
In this section, the mechanisms and physiologic motor responses to food are discussed.
Neuropeptidergic Control of the Response to Feeding and Satiation
Ingested nutrients and their digestion products initiate local actions in the upper gut, producing signals that initiate digestion and absorption. Other signals lead to the feeling of satiation, either directly or indirectly through effects on gastric function, and lead to meal termination. Even during ingestion of the meal, gastric emptying of liquids delivers nutrients into the intestine. Gastric and duodenal vagal afferents are stimulated by the mechanical, chemical, and osmotic effects of
Effect of Macronutrient Content, Energy Density, Meal Volume, and Physical Properties of a Meal on Food Intake, Satiety, and Satiation
The effects of energy density, meal volume, and physical properties of a meal on food intake, satiety, and satiation are mediated predominantly through effects on gastric emptying and are described in the section on gastric emptying. However, macronutrient content of food may result in adaptations of gastric and pancreatic functions and may ultimately lead to alterations in food intake.
Conclusion
Much has been learned about the processes involved in the response to the ingestion of food. This is a complex, integrated process that includes redundant neural and hormonal control mechanisms. Understanding these processes is critical to understanding the physiology and pathophysiology of diverse processes and their treatments, spanning from gastroparesis and dyspepsia to obesity. Greater understanding of the neurohormonal and peptidergic control may lead to novel applications in the
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Supported in part by grants RO1-DK54681, RO1-DK67071, and K24-DK02638.