Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Associations Between Physical Activity and Susceptibility to Cancer

Possible Mechanisms

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause and colonic cancers, and it seems to exert a weaker effect on the risk of breast, lung and reproductive tract tumours. This review examines possible mechanisms behind the observed associations. Restriction of physical activity by pre-existing disease may contribute to the association with lung cancers, but seems a less likely explanation for other types of tumour. Indirect associations through activity-related differences in body build or susceptibility to trauma seem of minor importance.

Potential dietary influences include overall energy balance and energy expenditure, the intake and/or bioavailability of minerals, antioxidant vitamins and fibre, and the relative proportions of protein and fat ingested.

Links between regular exercise and other facets of lifestyle that influence cancer risks are not very strong, although endurance athletes are not usually smokers, and regular leisure activity is associated with a high socioeconomic status which tends to reduce exposure to airborne carcinogens, both at work and at home. Overall susceptibility to cancer shows a ‘U’-shaped relationship to body mass index (mass/height2) reflecting, in part, the adverse influences of cigarette smoking and a tall body build for those with low body mass indices and, in part, the adverse effect of obesity at the opposite end of the body mass index distribution. Obesity seems a major component in the exercise-cancer relationship, with a particular influence on reproductive tract tumours; it alters the pathways of estradiol metabolism, decreases estradiol binding and facilitates the synthesis of estrogens.

Among the hormonal influences on cancer risk, insulin-like growth factors promote tumour development and exercise-mediated increases in cortisol and prostaglandin levels may depress cellular components of immune function. However, the most important change is probably the suppression of the gonadotropic axis. Apparent gender differences in the benefits associated with regular exercise reflect gender differences in the hormonal milieu and also a failure to adapt activity questionnaires to traditional patterns of physical activity in females.

The immune system is active at various stages of tumour initiation, growth and metastasis. However, acute and chronic changes in immune response induced by moderate exercise are rather small, and their practical importance remains debatable. At present, the oncologist is confronted by a plethora of interesting hypotheses, and further research is needed to decide which are of practical importance.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Kampert JB, Blair SN, Barlow CE, et al. Physical activity, physical fitness and all-cause and cancer mortality: a prospective study of men and women. Ann Epidemiol 1996; 6: 452–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Lee I-M. Physical activity, fitness and cancer. In: Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T, editors. Physical activity, fitness and health. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics Publishers, 1994: 814–31

    Google Scholar 

  3. Lee I-M, Paffenbarger RS. Physical activity and its relation to cancer risk: a prospective study of college alumni. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 831–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Lotzerich H, Fehr HG, Appell H-J. Potentiation of cytostatic but not cytolytic activity of murine macrophages after running stress. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 61–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Pinto BM, Marcus BH. Physical activity, exercise and cancer in women. Med Exerc Nutr Health 1994; 3: 102–11

    Google Scholar 

  6. Shephard RJ. Exercise in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Sports Med 1993; 15: 258–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Shephard RJ. Exercise and cancer: linkages with obesity? Int J Obesity 1995; 19 Suppl. 4: S63–8

    Google Scholar 

  8. Sternfeld B. Cancer and the protective effect of physical activity: the epidemiological evidence. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 1195–209

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Wannamethee G, Shaper AG, Macfarlane PW. Heart rate, physical activity, and mortality from cancer and other noncardiovascular diseases. Am J Epidemiol 1993; 137: 735–48

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, et al. Physical activity, obesity, and risk for colon cancer and adenoma in men. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 327–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. White E, Jacobs EJ, Daling JR. Physical activity in relation to colon cancer in middle-aged men and women. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144: 42–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bernstein L, Henderson RH, Sullivan-Halley J, et al. Physical exercise and reduced risk of breast cancer in young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994; 86: 1403–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Dorgan JF, Brown C, Barrett M, et al. Physical activity and risk of breast cancer in the Framingham Heart Study. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139: 662–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Albright NL, et al. Lower prevalence of breast cancer and cancers of the reproductive system among former college athletes compared to non-athletes. Br J Cancer 1985; 52: 885–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Hoffman-Goetz L, Husted J. Exercise and breast cancer: review and critical analysis of the literature. Can J Appl Physiol 1994; 19: 237–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Kramer M, Wells CL. Does physical activity reduce risk of estrogen- dependent cancer in women? Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 322–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Oliveria SA, Lee I-M. Is exercise beneficial in the prevention of prostate cancer. Sports Med 1997; 23: 271–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. United Kingdom Testicular Cancer Study Group. Aetiology of testicular cancer: association with congenital abnormalities, age at puberty, infertility, and exercise. BMJ 1994; 308: 1393–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Thune I, Lund E. The influence of physical activity on lung cancer risk. Int J Cancer 1997; 70: 57–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Frisch RE, Wyshak G, Albright NL, et al. Lower prevalence of non-reproductive system cancers among female former college athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1989; 21: 250–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. McGregor JM, Young AR. Sunscreens, suntans, and skin cancer. BMJ 1996; 312: 1621–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Shephard RJ. Exercise and malignancy. Sports Med 1986; 3: 235–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Moore JL, LaMont JT. Colorectal cancer risk factors and screening strategies. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144: 1819–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Kelsey JL. A review of the epidemiology of human breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 1979; 1: 74–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. McPherson K, Steel CM, Dixon JM. Breast cancer – epidemiology, risk factors and genetics. BMJ 1994; 309: 1003–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Pérusse L, Tremblay A, LeBlanc C, et al. Genetic and familial environmental influences on level of habitual physical activity. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 129: 1012–22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Mettlin C. Breast cancer risk factors. Cancer 1992; 69: 1904–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Simopoulos AP. Energy imbalance and cancer of the breast, colon and prostate. Med Oncol Tumor Pharmacother 1990; 7: 109–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Haenszel W. Cancer mortality among the foreign born in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 1961; 26: 37–132

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Preston-Martin S, Paganini-Hill A, Henderson BE, et al. Case-control study of intracranial meningiomas in women in Los Angeles County, California. J Natl Cancer Inst 1980; 65: 67–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Walsh J, Gye R, Connelly TJ. Meningioma: a late complication of head injury. Med J Aust 1969; 1: 906–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Coldman AJ, Elwood JM, Gallagher RP. Sports activities and risk of testicular cancer. Br J Cancer 1982; 46: 749–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Haughey BP, Graham S, brasure J, et al. The epidemiology of testicular cancer in upstate New York. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 130: 25–36

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Shephard RJ, Shek PN. Physical activity and immune changes: a potential model of subclinical inflammation and sepsis. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med 1996; 8: 153–81

    Google Scholar 

  35. Shek PN, Sabiston BH, Buguet A, et al. Strenuous exercise and immunological changes: a multiple time point analysis of leukocyte subsets, CD4/CD8 ratio and immunoglobulin production and NK cell responses. Int J Sports Med 1995; 16: 466–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Neugut AI, Terry MB, Hocking G, et al. Leisure and occupational physical activity and risk of colorectal adenomatous polyps. Int J Cancer 1996; 68: 744–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Bernstein L, Ross RK, Henderson BE. Prospects for the primary prevention of cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 135: 142–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Henderson BE, Ross RK, Judd HL, et al. Do regular ovulatory cycles increase breast cancer? Cancer 1985; 56: 1206–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Hsieh C, Trichopoulos D, Katsouyanni K, et al. Age at menarche, age at menopause, height and obesity as risk factors for breast cancer: associations and interactions in an international case-control study. Int J Cancer 1990; 46: 796–800

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Kampert JB, Whittemore AS, Paffenbarger RS. Combined effect of child-bearing, menstrual events, and body size on agespecific breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 962–79

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Tanner JM. The physique of the Olympic athlete. London: Unwin, 1964

    Google Scholar 

  42. Wilson BRA, Olson HW, Sprague HA, et al. Somatotype and longevity of former university athletes and nonathletes. Res Quart 1990; 61: 1–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Bloom JL. Body size and lung-tumor susceptibility in outbred mice. J Natl Cancer Inst 1964; 33: 599–606

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Albanes D, Taylor PR. International differences in body height and weight and their relationship to cancer incidence. Nutr Cancer 1990; 14: 69–77

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Chute CG, Willett WC, Colditz GA, et al. A prospective study of body mass, height, and smoking on the risk of colorectal cancer in women. Cancer Causes Control 1991; 2: 117–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Albanes D, Winick M. Are cell number and cell proliferation risk factors for cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1988; 80: 772–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Dyer AR, Stamler J, Berkson DM, et al. Relationship of relative weight and body mass index to 14-year mortality in the Chicago People’s Gas Company Study. J Chron Dis 1975; 28: 109–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Friedenreich CM, Courneya KS. Exercise as rehabilitation for cancer patients. Clin J Sports Med 1996; 6: 237–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Sherman B, Wallace R, Bean J, et al. Relationship of body weight to menarcheal and menopausal age: implications for breast cancer risk. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52: 488–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Apter D, Vihko R. Early menarche, a risk factor for breast cancer, indicates early onset of ovulatory cycles. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983; 57: 82–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Boulard M, Tuchweber B, Ledoux M. The effects of physical exercise on NMU-induced mammary tumors in rats [abstract]. International Conference on Exercise, Fitness and Health: 1988 May 29-June 3; Toronto (ON). Ottawa (ON): Canadian Association of Sport Sciences, 1988: 36

    Google Scholar 

  52. Shephard RJ. Exercise and cancer: linkages with obesity. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 1996; 36: 321–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Damon A. Host factors in cancer of the breast and uterine cervix and corpus. J Natl Cancer Inst 1960; 24: 483–516

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Simopoulos AP. Obesity and carcinogenesis: historical perspectives. Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 45: 271–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Whittemore AS, Wu-Williams AH, Lee I-M, et al. Diet, physical activity, and colorectal cancer among Chinese in North America and China. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990; 82: 915–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Greenwald P, Damon A, Kirmss V, et al. Physical and demographic features of men developing cancer of the prostate. J Natl Cancer Inst 1974; 53: 341–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. LeMarchand L, Kolonel LN, Earle ME, et al. Body size at different periods of life and breast cancer risk. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 137–52

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. LeRoith D, Baserga R, Helman L, et al. Insulin-like growth factors and cancer. Ann Intern Med 1995; 122: 54–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Valaoras V, MacMahon B, Tricholpoulos D, et al. Lactation and reproductive histories of breast cancer in Greater Athens, 1965–67. Int J Cancer 1969; 4: 350–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Lapidus L, Helgesson O, Merck C, et al. Adipose tissue distribution and female carcinomas: a 12-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. Int J Obesity 1988; 12: 361–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Schapira DV, Kumar NB, Lyman GH, et al. Abdominal obesity and breast cancer risk. Ann Intern Med 1990; 112: 182–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Mohle-Boetani J, Grosser S, Whittemore AS, et al. Body size, reproductive factors and breast cancer survival. Prev Med 1988; 17: 634–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Nieman D, Butler J, Pollett L, et al. Nutrient intake of marathon runners. J Am Diet Assoc 1989; 89: 173–278

    Google Scholar 

  64. Heinemann L, Zerbes H. Physical activity, fitness and diet. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 49: 1007–16

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Lee I-M. Exercise and physical health: Cancer and immune function. Res Quart 1995; 66: 286–91

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Shephard RJ. Physiology and biochemistry of exercise. New York (NY): Praeger Publications, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  67. Fernandes G, Venkatraman JT. Possible mechanisms through which dietary lipids, calorie restriction and exercise modulate breast cancer. In: Jacobs MM, editor. Exercise, calories, fat and cancer. New York (NY): Plenum Press, 1992: 185–201

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  68. Holloszy JO, Schectman KB. Interaction between exercise and food restriction: effects on longevity of male rats. J Appl Physiol 1991; 59: 1529–35

    Google Scholar 

  69. Berg BN, Simms HS. Nutrition and longevity in the rat. II. Longevity and onset of disase with different levels of food intake. J Nutr 1960; 71: 255–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer 1975; 15: 617–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Gillette CD, Zhu K, Westerlind K, et al. Energy availability and mammary carcinogenesis: effects of calorie restriction and exercise [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: S293

    Google Scholar 

  72. Weindruch R, Walford RL. The retardation of aging and disease by dietary restriction. Springfield (IL): C.C. Thomas, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  73. Nauss KN, Jacobs LR, Newperne RM. Dieting, fat and fiber relationship to caloric intake, body growth and colon tumorigenesis. Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 45: 243–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Powell KE, Caspersen CJ, Koplan JP, et al. Physical activity and chronic diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 1989; 49: 999–1006

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Parry-Billings M, Budgett R, Koputedakis Y, et al. Plasma amino-acid concentrations in the overtraining syndrome: possible effects on the immune system. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 1353–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Hebert JR, Barone J, Reddy MMB. Natural killer cell activity in a longitudinal dietary fat intervention trial. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1990; 54: 103–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. el-Sohemy A, Bruce WR, Archer MC. Inhibition of rat mammary tumorigenesis by dietary cholesterol. Carcinogenesis 1996; 17: 159–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Cramer DW, Welch WR, Hutchison GB, et al. Dietary animal fat in relation to ovarian cancer risk. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 63: 833–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Nelson RL, Davis FG, Sutter E, et al. Body iron stores and risk of colonic neoplasia. J Natl Cancer Inst 1994; 86: 455–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Stevens RG, Jones DY, Micozzi Ms, et al. Body iron stores and the risk of cancer. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1047–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Jacobs MM. Vitamins and minerals in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  82. Kanter MM. Free radicals, exercise, and antioxidant supplementation. Int J Sport Nutr 1994; 4: 205–20

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Austoker J. Diet and cancer. BMJ 1994; 308: 1610–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Floyd RA. Role of oxygen free radicals in carcinogenesis and brain ischemia. FASEB J 1990; 4: 2587–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Hartmann A, Plappert U, Raddatz K, et al. Does physical activity induce DNA damage? Mutagenesis 1994; 9: 269–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Niess AM, Hartmann A, Baumann M, et al. DNA damage in leucocytes after half-marathon and exhaustive treadmill running – influence of training status [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: S297

    Google Scholar 

  87. Kuchino Y, Mori F, Kasai H, et al. Misreading of DNA templates containing 8-hydroxy-deoxyguanosine residues at the modified base and adjacent residues. Nature 1987; 327: 77–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Kark JD, Smith AH, Switzer BR, et al. Serum vitamin A (retinol) and cancer incidence in Evans County, Georgia. J Natl Canc Inst 1981; 66: 7–16

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Quintanilha AT. Effects of physical exercise and/or vitamin E on tissue oxidative metabolism. Biochem Soc Trans 1984; 12: 403–4

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Thompson HJ, Ronan AM, Ritacco KA, et al. Effect of exercise on the induction of mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 2720–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Thompson HJ, Ronan AM, Ritacco KA, et al. Effect of type and amount of dietary fat on the enhancement of rat mammary tumorigenesis by exercise. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 1904–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Thompson HJ. Effect of treadmill exercise intensity on hepatic glutathione content and its relevance to mammary tumorigenesis. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1992; 32: 59–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Sjodin B, Westing YH, Apple FS. Biochemical mechanisms for oxygen free radical formation during exercise. Sports Med 1990; 10: 236–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Ji LL. Exercise and oxidative stress: role of the cellular antioxidant systems. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1995; 23: 135–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Robertson JD, Maughan RJ, Duthie GG, et al. Increased blood antioxidant systems of runners in response to training load. Clin Sci 1991; 80: 611–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Beyer RE. The role of coenzyme Q in endurance training acquired resistance to free radical damage. In: Folkers K, Littaru GP, Yamagami T, editors. Biomedical and clinical aspects of coenzyme Q. Volume 6. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1991

    Google Scholar 

  97. Kavanagh T, Lindley LJ, Shephard RJ, et al. Health and sociodemographic characteristics of the Masters’ competitor. Ann Sports Med 1988; 4: 55–64

    Google Scholar 

  98. Wang GQ, Dawsey SM, Li JY, et al. Effects of vitamin/mineral supplementation on the prevalence of histological dysplasia and early cancer of the esophagus and stomach: results from the General Population Trial in Linxian, China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 1994; 3 (2): 161–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Boger RH, Bode-Boger SM, Schroder EP, et al. Increased prostacyclin production during exercise in untrained and trained men: effect of low-dose aspirin. J Appl Physiol 1995; 78: 1832–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Freeman DH, et al. Reduced risk of large-bowel adenomas among aspirin users. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 912–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Logan RFA, Little J, Hawtin PG, et al. Effect of aspirin and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on colorectal adenoadenomas: case-control study of subjects participating in the Nottingham faecal occult blood screening programme. BMJ 1993; 307: 285–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Suh O, Mettlin C, Petrelli NJ. Aspirin use, cancer, and polyps of the large bowel. Cancer 1993; 72: 1171–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Thun MJ, Namboodiri MN, Heath CW. Aspirin use and reduced risk of fatal colon cancer. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1593–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Paganini-Hill A. Aspirin and colorectal cancer [editorial]. BMJ 1993; 307: 278–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Burkitt DP, Walker ARP, Painter NS. Effect of dietary fibre on stools and transit times, and its role in the causation of disease. Lancet 1972; II: 1408–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Hislop TG. Diet and cancer. Can Fam Phys 1990; 36: 973–5

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Sutherland WHF, Nye ER, Macfarlane DJ, et al. Fecal bile acid concentration in distance runners. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 533–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Simko V, Kelley RE. Effect of physical exercise on bile and red blood cell lipids in humans. Atherosclerosis 1979; 32: 423–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Cordain L, Latin RW, Behnke JJ. The effects of an aerobic running program on bowel transit time. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1986; 26: 101–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Hyams DE. Gastrointestinal problems in the old. BMJ 1974; 1: 107–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Keeling WF, Harris A, Martin BJ. Orocecal transit during mild exercise in women. J Appl Physiol 1990; 68: 1350–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Milne JS, Williamson J. Bowel habit in older people. Gerontol Clin 1972; 14: 56–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Bingham SA, Cummings JH. Effect of exercise and physical fitness on large intestinal function. Gastroenterology 1989; 97: 1389–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Coenen C, Wegener M, Wedmann B, et al. Does physical exercise influence bowel transit time in healthy young men? Am J Gastroeneterol 1992; 87: 292–5

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Glober GA, Nomura A, Xamiyama S, et al. Bowel transit time and stool weight in populations with different colon cancer risks. Lancet 1977; II: 110–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Kayaleh RA, Meshkinpour H, Avinashi A, et al. Effect of exercise on mouth to cecum transit time in trained athletes: a case against the role of runners’ abdominal bouncing. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1996; 36: 271–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Oettle GJ. Effect of moderate exercise on bowel habit. Gut 1991; 32: 941–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Thorogood M, Mann J, Appleby P, et al. Risk of death from cancer and ischaemic heart disease in meat and non-meat eaters. BMJ 1994; 308: 1667–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Relation of meat, fat and fiber intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1664–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Ishida Y, Tamura M, Kanada H, et al. Histopathologic studies of the nervous system tumors in rats induced by Nnitrosomethyl urea. Acta Pathol Jpn 1975; 25: 385–401

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Shephard SE. Towards an evaluation of the health risk posed by the in vivo nitrosation of foods [dissertation]. Zurich: University of Zurich, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  122. Cohen LA, Choi K, Backlund J-Y, et al. Modulation of Nnitrosomethylurea induced mammary tumorigenesis by dietary fat and voluntary exercise. In Vivo 1991; 5: 333–44

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Crighton IL, Dowsett M, Hunter M, et al. The effect of a low fat diet on hormnone levels in healthy pre- and postmenopausal women. Eur J Cancer 1992; 28A: 2024–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Prentice RL, Pepe M, Self SG. Dietary fat and breast cancer: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiological literature and a discussion of methodological issues. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 3147–56

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Ballard-Barbash R, Schatzkin A, Albanes D, et al. Physical activity and risk of large bowel cancer in the Framingham study. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 3610–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Slattery ML, Schumacher MC, Smith KR, et al. Physical activity, diet, and risk of colon cancer in Utah. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 989–99

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Wyshak G, Frisch RE, Albright NL, et al. Lower prevalence of benign diseases of the breast and benign tumors of the reproductive system among former college athletes compared to non-athletes. Br J Cancer 1986; 54: 841–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Marshall E. Search for a killer: focus shifts from fat to hormones. Science 1993; 259: 618–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Simopoulos AP. Fat intake, obesity and cancer of the breast. Med Oncol Tumor Pharmacother 1985; 2: 125–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Whittemore AS, Henderson BE. Dietary fat and breast cancer: where are we? J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 762–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Frisch RE. Amenorrhea, vegetarianism, and/or low fat. Lancet 1984; I: 1024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Blair SN, Jacobs DR, Powell KE. Relationship between exercise or physical activity and other health behaviors. Publ Health Rep 1985; 100: 172–80

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Shephard RJ. Exercise as an agent of lifestyle change. Br J Sports Med 1989; 23: 11–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Shephard RJ, Bouchard C. Associations between health behaviours and health-related fitness. Br J Sports Med 1996; 30: 94–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Schlueter LA. Knowledge and beliefs about breast cancer and breast self-examination among athletic and non-athletic women. Nurs Res 1982; 31: 348–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Turnbull EM. Effects of basic preventive health practices and mass media on the practice of breast self-examination. Nurs Res 1978; 27: 98–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Fogelholm M, Kaprio S, Sarna S. Healthy lifestyles of former Finnish world class athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 224–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Karvonen MJ, Kelmola H, Virkajarvi J, et al. Longevity of endurance skiers. Med Sci Sports 1974; 6: 49–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Shephard RJ, Kavanagh T, Mertens DJ, et al. Personal health benefits of Masters athletics competition. Br J Sports Med 1996; 29: 35–40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Montoye HJ, Van Huss WD, Olson HW, et al. The longevity and morbidity of college athletes. Lansing (MI): Phi Epsilon Kappa Fraternity, 1957

    Google Scholar 

  141. Winkelstein W, Shillitoe EJ, Brand R, et al. Further comments on cancer of the uterine cervix, smoking, and herpes virus infection. Am J Epidemiol 1984; 119: 1–8

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Shephard RJ. Does exercise reduce all-cancer death rates? Br J Sports Med 1992; 23: 11–22

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Martonen TB. Deposition patterns of cigarette smoke in human airways. Am Industr Hyg Assoc J 1992; 53: 6–18

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Yang CP, Gallagher RP, Weiss NS, et al. Differences in incidence rates of cancers of the respiratory tract by anatomic sub-site and histologic type: an etiologic implication. J Natl Cancer Inst 1989; 81: 1828–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Niinimaa V, Cole P, Mintz S, et al. The switching point from nasal to oronasal breathing. Resp Physiol 1980; 42: 61–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Ainsworth M, Shephard RJ. The intrabronchial distribution of soluble vapours at selected rates of gas flow. In: Davies CN, editor. Inhaled particles and vapours. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1961: 233–48

    Google Scholar 

  147. Penman K. A potential hazard in physical education environment. J Phys Ed Recr 1980; 51: 24

    Google Scholar 

  148. Pukkala E. Cancer risk by social class and occupation. Basel: Karger, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  149. Stephens T, Craig C. The well-being of Canadians: the 1988 Campbell’s survey. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Fitness and Lifestyle Research Institute, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  150. Tomatis L. Cancer: causes, occurrence and control. Lyons: International Association for Research on Cancer (IARC) Scientific Publications, 1990

    Google Scholar 

  151. Bjork N, Nilsson J, Hultcrantz R, et al. Growth-regulatory effects of sensory neuropeptides, epidermal growth factor, insulin and somatostatin on the non-transformed intestinal epithelial cell line IEC-6 and the colon cancer cell line HT 29. Scand J Gastroenterol 1993; 28: 879–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Koenuma M, Yamori T, Tsuruo T. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor stimulate proliferation of metastatic variants of colon carcinoma 26. Jpn J Cancer Res 1989; 80: 51–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Watkins LF, Lewis LR, Levine AE. Characterization of the synergistic effects of insulin and transferrin and the regulation of their receptors on a human colon carcinoma cell line. Int J Cancer 1990; 45: 372–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Baguley BC, Holdaway KM, Thomsen LL, et al. Inhibition of growth of colon 38 adenocarcinoma by vinblastine and colchicine: evidence of a vascular mechanism. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27: 482–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Murray JC. Vascular damage and tumor response. Eur J Cancer 1992; 28A: 1593–4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. White JA, Ismail AH, Bottoms GD. Effect of physical fitness on the adrenocortical response to exercise stress. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1976; 8: 113–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Mainwaring WIP. Hormones and cancer. In: Franks LM, Teich NM, editors. Introduction to the cellular and molecular biology of cancer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991: 357–85

    Google Scholar 

  158. Woods JA, Davis JM, Mayer EP, et al. Exercise increases inflammatory macrophage antitumor cytotoxicity. J Appl Physiol 1993; 75: 879–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Woods JA, Davis JM. Exercise, monocyte/macrophage function, and cancer. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 147–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Demers LM, Harrison TS, Halbert DR, et al. Effect of prolonged exercise on plasma prostaglandin levels. Prostagl Med 1981; 6: 413–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Thor P, Konturek JW, Konturek SJ. Role of prostaglandins in control of intestinal motility. Am J Physiol 1985; 248: G353–9

    Google Scholar 

  162. Malygin AM, Meri S, Timonen T. Regulation of natural killer cell activity by transforming growth factor-B and prostaglandin E2. Scand J Immunol 1993; 37: 71–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Tutton PJM, Barkla DH. Influence of prostaglandins on epithelial cell proliferation and xenograft growth. Br J Cancer 1980; 41: 47–51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Young MRI, Okada F, Tada M, et al. Association of increased tumor cell responsiveness to prostaglandin E2 with more aggressive tumor behavior. Invasion Metastasis 1991; 11: 48–57

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Prior JC, Vigna YM. Gonadal steroids in athletic women: contraception, complications and performance. Sports Med 1985; 2: 287–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Hanna N, Schneider M. Enhancement of tumor metastasis and suppression of natural killer cell activity by beta-estradiol treatment. J Immunol 1982; 130: 974–80

    Google Scholar 

  167. Vihko R, Apter D. The epidemiology amd endocrinology of the menarche in relation to breast cancer. Cancer Surv 1986; 5: 561–71

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Bernstein L, Ross RK, Lobo RA, et al. The effects of moderate physical activity on menstrual cycle patterns in adolescence: implications for breast cancer prevention. Br J Cancer 1987; 55: 681–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Moisan J, Meyer F, Gingras S. Leisure, physical activity and age at menarche. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 1170–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Jick H, Watkins RN, Hunter JR, et al. Replacement estrogens and endometrial cancer. N Engl J Med 1979; 300: 218–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Thomas DB. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 359–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Greenberg ER, Barnes AB, Resseguie L. Breast cancer in mothers given diethylstilboestrol in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1993; 311: 1393–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  173. Toniolo PG, Levitz M, Zelenuich-Jacquotte A, et al. A prospective study of endogenous estrogens and breast cancer in premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 190–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Shangold MM. How I manage exercise-related menstrual disturbances. Phys Sportsmed 1986; 14 (3): 113, 116, 119–20

    Google Scholar 

  175. Shangold MM. Menstruation and menstrual disorders. In: S Hangold MM, Mirkin G, editors. Women and exercise: physiology and sports medicine. Philadelphia (PA): F.A. Davis, 1994

    Google Scholar 

  176. McGuire WL, Carbone PP, Vollmer EP. Estrogen receptors in human breast cancer. New York (NY): Raven Press, 1975

    Google Scholar 

  177. McGuire WL, Raynaud J-P, Baulieu EE. Progesterone receptors in normal and neoplastic tissues. New York (NY): Raven Press, 1977

    Google Scholar 

  178. Tietz NW. Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  179. Fishman J, Boyar RM, Hellman L. Influence of body weight on estradiol metabolism in young women. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1975; 41: 989–91

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Martucci C, Fishman J. Direction of estradiol metabolism as a control of its hormonal action – uterotrophic activity of estradiol metabolites. Endocrinology 1977; 101: 1709–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Henderson BE, Ross BK, Bernstein L. Estrogens as a cause of human cancer: the Richard and Hinda Rosenthal award lecture. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 246–53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Key TJA, Pike MC. The role of estrogens and progestagens in the epidemiology and prevention of breast cancer. Eur J Clin Oncol 1988; 24: 29–43

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Haffner SM, Katz MS, Dunn JF. Increased upper body and ocverall adiposity is associated with decreased sex hormone binding globulin in postmenopausal women. Int J Obesity 1991; 15: 471–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Forney JP, Milewich L, Chen GT, et al. Aromatization of androstenedione to estrone by human adipose tissue in vitro: correlation with adipose tissue mass, age, and endometrial neoplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53: 192–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Siiteri PK. Adipose tissue as a source of hormones. Am J Clin Nutr 1987; 45: 277–82

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Hackney C, Sinning WE, Bruot BC. Hypothalamic-pituitarytesticular axis function in endurance-trained males. Int J Sports Med 1990; 11: 298–303

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Wheeler GD, Wall SR, Belcastro AN, et al. Reduced serum testosterone and prolactin levels observed in male distance runners. JAMA 1984; 252: 515–6

    Google Scholar 

  188. Ghanadian R, Push KM, O’Donoghue P. Serum testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in carcinoma of the prostate. Br J Cancer 1979; 39: 696–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Coggon D, Pannett B, Osmond C, et al. A survey of cancer and occupation in young and middle-aged men: non-respiratory cancers. Br J Industr Med 1986; 43: 381–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. McDowell ME, Balarajan R. Testicular cancer mortality in England and Wales 1971–80: variations by occupation. J Epidemiol Comm Health 1986; 40: 26–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  191. Swerdlow AJ, Skeet RG. Occupational associations of testicular cancer in south east England. Br J Industr Med 1988; 45: 225–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Creagh TM, Rubin A, Evans DJ. Hepatic tumours induced by anabolic steroids in an athlete. J Clin Pathol 1988; 41: 441–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Frasier SD. Androgens and athletes. Am J Dis Child 1973; 125: 479–80

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Johnson FL. The association of oral androgenic-anabolic steroids and life-threatening disease. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1975; 7: 284–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Mottram DR. Drugs in sport. London: E & F Spon, 1988

    Book  Google Scholar 

  196. Shephard RJ. Physical activity, training and the immune response. Carmel (IN): Cooper Publications, 1997

    Google Scholar 

  197. Liesen H, Uhlenbruck G. Sports immunology. Sport Sci Rev 1992; 1: 94–116

    Google Scholar 

  198. Verde T, Thomas SG, Moore RW, et al. Immune responses and increased training of the elite athlete. J Appl Physiol 1992; 73: 1494–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Hoffman-Goetz L. Exercise, natural immunity, and tumor metastasis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 157–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Whiteside T, Herberman R. Human NK cells in health and disease. Clin Immunother 1994; 1: 56–66

    Google Scholar 

  201. Yoshino I, Yano T, Murata M, et al. Tumor-reactive T cells accumulate in lung cancer tissues, but fail to respond due to tumor cell-derived factor. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 775–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Young MRI. Eicosanoids and the immunology of cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev 1994; 13: 337–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Beutler B, Cerami A. Cachectin: more than a tumor necrosis factor. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 379–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Woods JA, Davis JM, Mayer EP, et al. Effects of exercise on macrophage activation for anti-tumor cytotoxicity. J Appl Physiol 1994; 76: 2177–85

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Hoffman-Goetz L, Arumugam Y, Sweeny L. Lymphokine activated killer cell activity following voluntary physical activity in mice. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1994; 34: 83–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Herberman RB, Gorelik E. Role of the natural immune system in control of primary tumors and metastasis. In: Reynolds CW, Wiltrout RH, editors. Functions of the natural immune system. New York (NY): Plenum Press, 1989

    Google Scholar 

  207. Hanna M. Expression of metastatic potential of tumor cells in young nude mice is correlated with low levels of natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Int J Cancer 1980; 26: 675–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Karre K, Klein GO, Kiessling R, et al. In vitro NK-activity and in vivo resistance to leukaemia: studies of beige, beige/nude and wild type hosts on C57BL background. Int J Cancer 1980; 26: 789–97

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Gorelik E, Wiltrout RH, Okumura K, et al. Role of NK cells in the control of metastatic spread and growth of tumor cells in mice. Int J Cancer 1982; 30: 107–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Lala PK, Santer V, Libenson H, et al. Changes in the host natural killer cell population in mice during tumor development: kinetics and in vivo significance. Cell Immunol 1985; 93: 250–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Pross HF, Baines MG. Alterations in natural killer cell activity in tumor-bearing hosts. In: Herberman RB, Wiltrout RH, Gorelik E, editors. Immune responses to metastases. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press, 1987: 57–78

    Google Scholar 

  212. Wei WZ, Heppner G. Natural killer activity of lymphocytic infiltrates in mouse mammary lesions. Br J Cancer 1987; 55: 589–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Shinkai S, Shore S, Shek PN, et al. Acute exercise and immune function. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 452–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Crist DM, Mackinnon LT, Thompson RF, et al. Physical exercise increases natural cellular-mediated tumor cytotoxicity in elederly women. Gerontologist 1989; 35: 66–71

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Pedersen BK, Tvede N, Christensen LD, et al. Natural killer cell activity in peripheral blood of highly trained and untrained persons. Int J Sports Med 1989; 10: 129–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Rhind S, Shek PN, Shinai S, et al. Effects of moderate endurance exercise and training on in vitro lymphocyte proliferation, interleukin-2 (IL-2) production, and IL-2 receptor expression. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 74: 348–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. MacNeil B, Hoffman-Goetz L. Exercise training and tumor metastasis in mice: influence of time of exercise onset. Anticancer Res 1993; 13: 2085–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. MacNeil B, Hoffman-Goetz L. Chronic exercise enhances in vivo and in vitro cytotoxic mechanisms of natural immunity in mice. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 388–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Rhind S, Shek S, Shinkai S, et al. Differential expression of interleukin-2 receptor alpha and beta chains in relation to natural killer subsets and aerobic fitness. Int J Sports Med 1994; 15: 911–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  220. Wolters BW, Ceddia MA, Germann CA, et al. Exhaustive exercise increases cytotoxic T lymphocyte anti-EL-4 tumor immunity [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: S158

    Google Scholar 

  221. Woods JA, Davis JM, Kohut ML, et al. Effects of exercise on the immune response to cancer. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 1109–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Lewicki R, Tchorzewski H, Denys A, et al. Effect of physical exercise on some parameters of immunity in conditioned sportsmen. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 309–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Fehr HG, Lotzerich H, Michna H. Human macrophage function and physical exercise: phagocytic and histochemical studies. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 58: 613–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Fehr HG, Lotzerich H, Michna H. The influence of physical exercise on peritoneal macrophage functions: histochemical and phagocytic studies. Int J Sports Med 1988; 9: 77–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Soman VR, Koivisto VA, Deibert P, et al. Increased insulin sensitivity and insulin binding to monocytes after physical training. N Engl J Med 1979; 301: 1200–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Michel G, Vock T, Fiehn W, et al. Bidirectional alteration of insulin receptor affinity by different forms of physical exercise. Am J Physiol 1984; 246: E153–9

    Google Scholar 

  227. Taffett SM, Russell SW. Macrophage-mediated tumor cell killing: regulation of expression of cytolytic activity by prostaglandin E. J Immunol 1981; 126: 424–7

    Google Scholar 

  228. Pyne DB. Regulation of neutrophils during exercise. Sports Med 1994; 17: 245–58

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Barna BP, James K, Deodhar SS. Activation of human monocyte tumoricidal activity by C-reactive protein. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 3959–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Dufaux B, Order U, Geyer H, et al. C-reactive protein concentration in well-trained athletes. Int J Sports Med 1984; 5: 102–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Fidler IJ, Ichinose Y. Mechanisms of macrophage mediated tumor cell lysis: role for the monokines tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 1. In: Mitchell MS, editor. Immunity to cancer. Volume 2. New York (NY): Alan R. Liss, 1987

    Google Scholar 

  232. Lachman LB, Dinarello CA, Liansa ND, et al. Natural and recombinant human interleukin 1-beta is cytotoxic for human melanoma cells. J Immunol 1987; 136: 3098–103

    Google Scholar 

  233. Mace KF, Ehrke MJ, Hori K, et al. Role of tumor necrosis factor in macrophage activation and tumoricidal activity. Cancer Res 1988; 48: 5427–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Fidler IJ, Ichinose Y. Mechanisms of macrophage mediated tumor cell lysis: role for the monokine tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 1. Progr Clin Biol Res 1989; 288: 169–81

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. McCann J. Clues about metastasis may lead to better cancer drugs. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 636–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Bani MR, Garofalo A, Scanziani E, et al. Effect of interleukin- 1-beta on metastasis formation in different tumor systems. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83: 119–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Mannering GJ, Deloria LB. The pharmacology and toxicology of the interferons: an overview. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1986; 26: 455–515

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. British Medical Journal. Cytokines and cancer [editorial]. BMJ 1992; 305: 265–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  239. Malik S, Waxman J. Cytokines and cancer: clinical trials and experimental studies are unravelling their paradoxes. BMJ 1992; 305: 265–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Queseda JR, Talpaz M, Rios A, et al. Clinical toxicity of interferons in cancer patients: a review. J Clin Oncol 1986; 4: 234–43

    Google Scholar 

  241. Viti A, Muscettola M, Paulesu L, et al. Effect of exercise on plasma interferon levels. J Appl Physiol 1985; 59: 426–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Cerami A, Tracey KJ, Lowry SF, et al. Cachectin – a pluripotent hormone released during host response to invasion. Rec Progr Hormone Res 1987; 43: 99–112

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Cannon JG, Meydani SN, Fielding RA, et al. Acute phase response in exercise II. Associations between vitamin E, cytokines, and muscle proteolysis. Am J Physiol 1991; 259: R1235–40

    Google Scholar 

  244. DuFaux B, Order U. Complement activation after prolonged exercise. Clin Chim Acta 1989; 179: 45–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Espersen GT, Elboek A, Ernst E, et al. Effect of physical exercise on cytokines and lymphocyte subpopulations in human peripheral blood. Acta Pathol Microbiol Immunol Scand 1990; 98: 395–400

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Physical Education and Health and Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

    Roy J. Shephard

  2. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, North York, Ontario, Canada

    Roy J. Shephard & Pang N. Shek

Authors
  1. Roy J. Shephard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pang N. Shek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Roy J. Shephard.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Shephard, R.J., Shek, P.N. Associations Between Physical Activity and Susceptibility to Cancer. Sports Med 26, 293–315 (1998). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199826050-00002

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199826050-00002

Keywords

Search

Navigation